Timeline and History of PSIG

Black and white photograph of the Minerva House.

Minerva House. Source: 3221, Grant Foreman Collection, Oklahoma Historical Society

The Presbyterian School for Indian Girls (PSIG) is integral to histories of The University of Tulsa, Indigenous ancestors of Indian Territory, and the state of Oklahoma. The school also provides an overlooked chapter in the history of women’s education and the education of Indigenous peoples in North America. This last topic is intellectually and emotionally complex: residential schools for Native children are widely recognized now as instruments of settler colonization, with devastating effects on Indigenous individuals and communities that are still felt today. An account of PSIG – from its founding to its absorption into Henry Kendall College and then The University of Tulsa – needs to be understood against the backdrop of the forced assimilation of Native peoples to white, Anglo-American culture, the theft of Native resources, and the undermining of Native sovereignty. A timeline of Oklahoma history makes some of these connections clear, with the school chartered just before passage of the Dawes Act (which undermined Indigenous sovereignty through several measures, especially breaking up tribal land into individual allotments), rechartered as Henry Kendall College the year after the Muscogee (Creek) Nation lost its excepted status under Dawes, and moved to Tulsa in the year Oklahoma acquired statehood. PSIG additionally existed within a network of settler-colonial missionary and educational projects across the United States, with instructors, administrators, and students sometimes moving between schools. 

The story of the school is not just one of colonial oppression and Indigenous victimhood, however. By the time of the school’s founding the Muscogee (Creek) Nation had been practicing their own ideas of educational sovereignty. It is worth noting that the Muscogee Examiners Board, an office of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation Board of Education, had to certify Robertson before she was allowed to teach in the school. 


 

A Brief Timeline and History of Missionaries and Early Education

in Indian Territory and the Muscogee (Creek) Nation

By Midge Dellinger


1810 - The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) is founded by members of the Congregational Church of Andover Seminary in Massachusetts (The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture).

1817 - The United Foreign Missionary Society (UFMS) is founded by multiple Synods (the New York Presbyterians, the Reformed Church in America, the Dutch Reformed Church) “to spread the gospel among the Indians of North America, the inhabitants of Mexico and South America, and in other portions of the heathen and anti-Christian world.” (https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=AM002).

NOTE: Both the ABCFM and the UFMS designate Indigenous nations as target populations. These organizations believe that Christian education, church worship, farming, and domestic work will help Indigenous people become assimilated to Western civilization.

1821 - Union Mission, the first Protestant mission school, is established by the UFMS in the western section of Arkansas Territory, later to become Indian Territory (present day Mayes County) by the Presbyterian Church. It is initially a school for the Osage Nation (https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=UN005).

1825 - The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions absorbs all the mission societies working in Indian Territory, including the UFMS. Both Osage and Cherokee children are now attending the Union Mission School (Logsdon, 5).

1825 - The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions absorbs all the mission societies working in Indian Territory, including the UFMS. Both Osage and Cherokee children are now attending the Union Mission School (Logsdon, 5).

1827 - Mvskoke (Muscogee) removal from ancestral lands to Indian Territory begins, with the majority of Mvskoke being forcibly removed between 1836 and 1837. Removal will continue through the 1840s and early 1850s (Debo, 98-107).

1830 - Mvskoke children are now attending Union Mission (Logsdon, 6; Debo, 116).

NOTE: James Perryman, a Mvskoke interpreter and student of the Union Mission helps missionary John Fleming write two books in the Mvskoke language: The Mvskoki Imvnaitsv, Muscogee (Creek) Assistant, 1834, and A Short Sermon:  Also Hymns, in the Muscogee or Creek Language, 1835 (Logsdon, 7; Debo 117).

1836 - Mvskoke leaders expel all missionaries from the Muscogee (Creek) Nation. The Lower Mvskoke are opposed to the preaching of abolition. Thousands of Upper Mvskoke, soon to be arriving into Indian Territory, are opposed to Christian teachings (Logsdon, 8; Debo, 117).

1841 - The Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions send the Reverend William M. Loughridge to visit with Mvskoke leaders about building a school for Mvskoke children and preaching among them. Mvskoke leaders agree to the school with preaching in the school only (Logsdon, 9; Debo, 119).

NOTE: Some Mvskoke leaders tell Rev. Loughridge that they do not like the preaching because it interferes with their traditional Mvskoke ways of life, such as spiritual and religious ceremonies (Debo, 119).

NOTE: Between 1842 and 1848, Mvskoke leaders begin to lessen their hostilities against Euro-American religion. Missionaries are allowed to work again in the Muscogee (Creek) Nation. Even so, there continue to be whippings for converts and a fine for not attending the Mvskoke black drink ceremony (Debo, 119).

1843 - Rev. Loughridge returns to Indian Territory with his wife, Olivia. Mvskoke Chief Roley McIntosh instructs them to travel to his town of Coweta. Loughridge builds the Koweta Manual Labor Boarding School (the Koweta Mission), which opens June 25, 1843. The school offers a settler education, which includes housework training for Mvskoke girls and farm and stock raising for Mvskoke boys (Logsdon, 9; Debo, 119; https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry?entry=LO017).

1847 - The Tullahassee Manual Labor School (the Tullahassee Mission) is authorized between the Muscogee (Creek) Nation and the Presbyterian board. Loughridge is made superintendent (Logsdon, 9).

1849 - William S. Robertson becomes the principle of the Tullahassee Mission. He marries Ann Eliza Worchester in 1850 and they have five children, the second being Alice Mary Robertson, born January 2, 1854 (Logsdon, 10; Debo, 120).

1850 - The Tullahassee Mission opens. The school is built in present-day Wagoner County, five miles northwest of Muskogee (https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=TU002; Debo, 120).

1861 - At the beginning of the Civil War, all missions in the Muscogee (Creek) Nation are shut-down. The Loughridge family goes to Texas, and the Robertson family to Missouri and then Illinois. The Koweta Mission does not reopen after the Civil War (Logsdon, 10-12; Debo, 186).

1866 - The Robertson family returns to the Tullahassee Mission to find it in ruins after the war.  They rebuild (Logsdon, 12; Bass,165).

1868 - The Tullahassee Mission reopens (Logsdon, 12; Debo 186; Bass, 195).

1871 - Alice Robertson leaves the Tullahassee Mission to attend Elmira College (Logsdon, 12).

1875 - The First Presbyterian Church is established in the growing community of Muskogee, Indian Territory (Logsdon, 17; Mullins, 109).

1876 - A Day School begins in the First Presbyterian Church of Muskogee. Classes are held in the church without the “official” approval of The Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions and the Muscogee (Creek) Nation. It is intended that the school will be for all children (white and Indigenous) from local communities (Logsdon, 19).

1878 - Presbyterian theologian Henry Kendall, secretary for the Board of Home Missions, organizes the Women’s Executive Committee of Home Missions. This committee has the responsibility of funding mission schools and teachers (Logsdon, 18).

1880 - December 18, the Tullahassee Mission burns. Robertson tries to rebuild, but he has no support from the Muscogee Nation or the Board of Home Missions. He dies on June 26, 1881. His wife and one daughter, Ann Augusta, try to maintain the school using the remaining out-buildings (Logsdon, 12; Debo, 249).

1882 - Leaders from the First Presbyterian Church of Muskogee ask the Women’s Executive Committee of Home Missions for support with an Indigenous girl’s boarding school. The Woman’s Executive Committee agrees to underwrite and supervise such a school. The school is designed to be a semi-industrial boarding school for Indigenous girls from all over Indian Territory. The girls will be taught to take care of the home. Initially, the school is a day school (Logsdon, 20).

NOTE: Wealaka boarding school is established in 1882. Rev. William Loughridge is appointed superintendent of the school. The school is located twenty miles south of Tulsa on the south bank of the Arkansas River (Logsdon, 80).

1883 - A dormitory is built next to the Presbyterian church in Muskogee, and it is named Stoddard Hall after Rev. Samual A. Stoddard, pastor of the church, 1880-1882 (Logsdon, 23).

NOTE: W.L. Squire, a founding elder of the church, can be credited with the continued existence of the school. When the Presbyterian Board of Home Missions and the Women’s Executive Committee of Home Missions did not uphold their promises of financial support, Squire spent his own money to keep the school open, thus acquiring much personal debt (Logsdon, 19, 21-23).

1883 - The Robertson family leave the Tullahassee Mission. It is taken over by the Baptist Home Mission. Debo states that the school’s name remains Tullahassee (249). Logsdon, uses the name “Baptist Mission for Negroes” (12).

1884 - Nuyaka Mission opens. Alice M. Robertson raises funds in the east to help build the school. Mrs. Augusta Robertson Moore, Alice’s sister, is made superintendent and principal of the school by the Muscogee (Creek) Nation. Located fifteen miles west of Okmulgee, the school for both boys and girls is in operation until 1922 (Logsdon, 13; Debo, 309).

*1885 - In the fall of 1885, Alice Robertson becomes head of the Presbyterian School for Indian Girls (PSIG). The boarding school is attended by a handful of Mvskoke girls only. The goal of the school is to make good wives and mothers through the teaching of the Bible, music, and domestic skills. The day school is closed (Debo, 311; Logsdon, 23 – 24).

NOTE: Alice Robertson defied many obstacles placed in her way by “the lukewarm interest of those who should have been earnest friends” (Alice’s words). Even when “plans for giving up the school were suspended above it,” under Alice’s care, the school grows (Logsdon, 24-25).

1887 - Due to the need for more money and space, Alice resorts to touring the east to raise money. Loring Andrews Robertson, a cousin, helps fund a new building at the school. It is named the Minerva Home after Loring’s deceased sister Minerva Robertson (Logsdon, 27).

1888 - Grace Robertson, Alice’s sister is hired to teach at PSIG. Alice’s mother, Ann Eliza Worcester Robertson is hired as an interpreter at the school (Logsdon, 27).

1889 - Still in charge of PSIG, Alice takes a leave of absence to work as a stenographer for the Indian Commission. She returns to the school in 1890 and adds a kindergarten (Logsdon 27, 29).

1891 - Alice begins touring in the east again to raise funds for the school (Logsdon, 29).

1894 - William Robert King, becomes a synodical missionary for the Synod of Indian Territory.  He is to supervise the missions under the Women’s Executive Committee. In 1894, the Presbyterian church maintained five boarding schools, three “contract” schools (with MCN), and many day schools. King does not like the fact that the Presbyterians don’t have an institute of higher education (while the Methodist and the Baptist do) in Indian Territory. He sees a need for both Indigenous and white people to have a place of higher learning. Initially, the Synod of Indian Territory does not support this idea, so, King taking it upon himself, and without permission, travels to New York City to meet with the Presbyterian Board of Home Missions, who agree to his idea (Logsdon, 30-31).

NOTE: To open his college, King suggests closing PSIG in Muskogee, Mekasukey (a school for Seminole girls in Weowoka), and Spencer Academy (a school for Choctaw boys and girls). He also asks that the property in Muskogee be used for the college. In the summer of 1894, the Presbyterian Board of Home Missions gives King full authority to select the faculty and found the new school, which is named Henry Kendall College (Logsdon, 31, 33, 34).

After 12 years, 9 of them under Alice Robertson’s care, The Presbyterian School for Indian Girls ceases to exist after the spring term of 1894.  The Primary Department holds its closing program on June 4, 1894 and the Secondary Department on June 5, 1894. The decision to close the school was made without the input of Alice Robertson (Logsdon, 34).

1894 - On September 12, the land and buildings of PSIG transition into Henry Kendall College, Muskogee, Indian Territory. A kindergarten thru 4-year college degree is offered to both Indigenous and non-Indigenous students (Logsdon, 37-38; https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry?entry=UN014).

1907 - Oklahoma acquires statehood. The Synod of Oklahoma agrees on a relocation bid to relocate Henry Kendall College to Tulsa with a group of wealthy oilmen in Tulsa, known as the Commercial Club, which includes members of the Presbyterian Church. Henry Kendall College, Tulsa, opens on September 18 (Logsdon, 75-77, 89-91).

1921 - Henry Kendall College officially becomes recharted as The University of Tulsa (Logsdon, 138-140).

 

A note on terminology:

 

“Mvskoke” is one of the traditional, non-Anglicized spellings of the more widely known “Muscogee.” We use it here to describe the language, people, and culture.

 

“Muscogee (Creek) Nation” is the constitutional name of the Muscogee government and nation. We use it here to describe the government or specific offices. 

 

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